1. Field of the Invention
The present invention pertains to obtaining and using power/energy from man-made structures including manufactured (paved) surfaces and, more particularly, to using the power/energy in the form of heat obtained from solar radiation in the operation of energy conversion equipment, such as chillers, hot water supplies, heat pumps, organic Rankine cycle engines for mechanically generating electricity, water purification and distillation for buildings and/or other facilities.
2. Brief Discussion of the Related Art
Surfaces and structures are heated by solar radiation during the course of a typical sunny day. A typical asphalt or concrete surface has good heat-absorbing properties, and the heat energy from such structures is normally wasted and not utilized to its potential. Greater use of solar energy is an environmental friendly way of meeting increasing energy needs. In recent years, it has become increasingly evident that fossil fuels used to generate energy are finite and that their use is harmful to the environment. Large paved surfaces increase surface temperatures. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Geophysical Data Center relative to highways, streets, buildings, parking lots and other solid structures, notes that the total paved surface area of the 48 contiguous states of the United States of America and the District of Columbia is approximately 43,480 square miles (112,610 km2). This same study further describes that 1.05% of the United States of America land area is constructed, impervious surface (83,337 km2) and 0.43% of the world's land surface (579,703 km2) is constructed, impervious surface. China has more impervious surface area than any other country (87,182 km2) but has only 67 m2 of impervious surface area per person, compared to 297 m2 per person in the United States of America. Asphalt, concrete, bituminous roofs and other hard-paved surfaces absorb heat making it unpleasant to walk on a sidewalk in hot weather and increasing the strain on the air conditioning systems of buildings. Since hot air rises, the hot air traps airborne pollutants, such as auto exhaust, close to the ground adding to complications for pedestrians. The Portland Cement Association estimates that the “heat island effect” of concentrated areas of paved surfaces impervious to water increases the temperature of the paved areas by average of three to eight degrees. The most extreme increases take place in heavily paved areas, areas without shade, and areas paved with materials that don't reflect substantial light, such as asphalt. The heat island effect occurs in both small-town and urban commercial areas.
The organic Rankine cycle engine uses an organic, high molecular mass fluid with a liquid-vapor phase change, or boiling point, occurring at a lower temperature than the water-steam phase change. Accordingly, Rankine cycle heat recovery can be obtained from lower temperature sources such as industrial waste heat, geothermal heat, solar ponds and the like. Typically, the lower temperature heat is converted into useful work that can itself be converted into electricity.
Waste heat recovery is the most important development field for the organic Rankine cycle engine, as well as for absorption/adsorption chillers. Waste heat can be applied to heat and power plants (for example a small scale cogeneration plant for a domestic water heater) and also can be applied to industrial and farming processes such as organic products fermentation, hot exhausts from ovens or furnaces, flue gas condensation, exhaust gases from vehicles, inter-cooling of a compressor, and condenser of a power cycle.
As identified by the United States Environmental Protection Agency, developing urban areas modify their landscape. For example, solid and impermeable buildings, roads, and other infrastructure replace permeable and moist fields and vegetation. These changes cause urban regions to become warmer than their rural surroundings, forming an “island” of higher temperatures in the landscape. These heat islands occur on the surface and in the atmosphere. On a hot, sunny summer day, the sun can heat dry, exposed urban surfaces, such as roofs and pavement, to temperatures 50-90° F. (27-50° C.) hotter than the ambient air, while shaded or moist surfaces—often in more rural surroundings—remain closely aligned to ambient temperatures. Surface urban heat islands are typically present day and night, but tend to be strongest during the day when the sun is shining. The EPA states that these elevated temperatures from urban heat islands, particularly during the summer, can affect a community's environment and quality of life; the majority negative. These impacts include:                (1) Increased energy demand for cooling. Research shows that electricity demand for cooling increases 1.5-2.0% for every 1° F. (0.6° C.) increase in air temperature, starting from 68 to 77° F. (20 to 25° C.), suggesting that 5-10% of community-wide demand for electricity is used to compensate for the heat island effect. Peak electricity demand, instigated by the urban heat island, inevitably occurs on hot summer weekday afternoons when offices and homes are running cooling systems, lights, and appliances. The resulting demand for cooling can overload systems and require a utility to institute controlled, rolling brownouts or blackouts to avoid power outages.        (2) Elevated Emissions of Air Pollutants and Greenhouse Gases. Increasing energy demand generally results in greater emissions of air pollutants and greenhouse gas emissions from power plants. Higher air temperatures also promote the formation of ground-level ozone.        (3) Compromised Human Health and Comfort. Increased daytime temperatures, reduced nighttime cooling, and higher air pollution levels associated with urban heat islands can affect human health by contributing to respiratory difficulties, heat exhaustion, non-fatal heat stroke, and heat-related mortality. Excessive heat events, or abrupt and dramatic temperature increases, are particularly dangerous and can result in above-average rates of mortality. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimates that from 1979-2003, excessive heat exposure contributed to more than 8,000 premature deaths in the United States. This figure exceeds the number of mortalities resulting from hurricanes, lightning, tornadoes, floods, and earthquakes combined.        (4) Impaired Water Quality. High pavement and rooftop surface temperatures can heat storm-water runoff. Tests have shown that pavements that are 100° F. (38° C.) can elevate initial rainwater temperature from roughly 70° F. (21° C.) to over 95° F. (35° C.). This heated storm-water generally becomes runoff, which drains into storm sewers and raises water temperatures as it is released into streams, rivers, ponds, and lakes. Water temperature affects all aspects of aquatic life, especially the metabolism and reproduction of many aquatic species. Rapid temperature changes in aquatic ecosystems resulting from warm storm-water runoff can be particularly stressful, even fatal, to aquatic life.        
There are four current strategies to mitigate the urban heat island effect:
(1) Increasing tree and vegetative cover over the general landscape;
(2) Creating rooftop gardens;
(3) Installing reflective roofs; and
(4) Employing cool pavement technologies (aggregate make-up).
Heat island mitigation is part of a community's energy, air quality, water, or sustainability effort. These activities may range from voluntary initiatives to policy actions, such as requiring cool roofs via building codes. Most mitigation activities have multiple benefits, including cleaner air, improved human health and comfort, reduced energy costs and lower greenhouse gas emissions.
As an alternative to powering vehicles using the internal combustion engine, designers have experimented with batteries, fuel cells, and solar panels. These experiments have been motivated, in large part, by a concern that gases emitted by internal combustion engines could harm humans by adversely affecting their environment. Motivated by these concerns, lawmakers have passed laws governing vehicle emissions. Accordingly, there is an ongoing need for sources of power that can supplement or replace the internal combustion engine as a source of power for vehicles. For similar reasons, there is a need for alternative stationary sources of power that reduce harmful environmental effects associated with the combustion of fossil fuels.
With a growing concern over global climate change, scientists, lawmakers, and entrepreneurs are all seeking solutions. At the forefront of this debate are new sources of power. These could provide an alternative to fossil fuels, which release harmful greenhouse gases.
Similarly, in addition to clean energy sources, it is important not to overlook methods to reduce the effects of global warming. Paving over vegetation allows more heat to be absorbed by the Earth's surface, and later reradiated into the atmosphere. This is particularly true in areas with heavy populations, roads and travel, where the necessity for paving is largest. This gives way to the Urban Heat Island effect, which has increased the needs of air conditioning in cities like Los Angles by over 40% during the summer months.